Original Research Paper-English Issue
Emerging educational technologies
M. Eftekhari; M. Rahimi
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Educational technology has long been recognized as a powerful tool for enhancing foreign language learning opportunities, with particular relevance for students in under-resourced environments where instructional quality and materials are often limited. Among emerging tools, ...
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Background and Objectives: Educational technology has long been recognized as a powerful tool for enhancing foreign language learning opportunities, with particular relevance for students in under-resourced environments where instructional quality and materials are often limited. Among emerging tools, virtual reality (VR) videos have gained increasing attention for their capacity to create immersive, authentic learning experiences in recent years. Despite the promise of these emerging technologies, little is known about how their pedagogical effectiveness varies among learners with different psychological profiles. One such psychological factor-learned helplessness (LH)- plays a critical role in students’ academic behaviours, motivation, and resilience. Learners with high LH often experience persistent negative expectations about their abilities, reduced perseverance, and diminished engagement, potentially limiting the benefits they receive from technology-enhanced learning environments. Although previous research has explored LH in EFL settings and the equity implications of educational technology, no study to date has examined how teacher-made 360° VR videos influence language learning outcomes across LH levels in a low socioeconomic status (SES). Therefore, the present study was designed to fill this gap by examining the effects of teacher-made 360° VR tours on English achievement among students with different levels of LH in an underprivileged setting.Materials and Methods: The study employed a mixed-methods experimental design. Fifty-eight female 10th-grade students (aged 15-16) from an underprivileged school were randomly assigned to an experimental (n=29) and a control group (n=29). The experimental group used tailored 360° VR tours, made by a Samsung Gear 360 camera, and the control group used ready-made 360 VR videos from YouTube for one academic year. The learning gains were assessed by the English final exam, and the level of LH was evaluated by the EFL-LH scale. Quantitative data were analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to compare post-test performance between research groups and participants with different levels of LH. To explore learner perceptions, an open-ended questionnaire was used with a purposive subsample representing both high- and low-LH groups. Qualitative data were analyzed thematically to identify patterns in learners’ perceptions of the VR learning experience. achievement between the teacher-made 360° VR tour group and the ready-made VR video group, although the experimental group demonstrated slightly higher mean gains. However, LH emerged as a strong differentiating factor [F(2, 52)=5.311, p=0.008<0.05]. Learners with low LH significantly outperformed high-LH learners both within and across the two instructional conditions. Low-LH learners in the experimental group demonstrated the greatest improvement, suggesting that immersive, teacher-designed experiences may be particularly effective for motivated and self-efficacious learners. Qualitative findings illustrated that low-LH learners expressed positive attitudes, describing the tours as engaging, relevant, and helpful in improving vocabulary and comprehension. In contrast, high-LH learners reported difficulties in maintaining interest, scepticism about the educational value of the VR tours, and occasional feelings of being overwhelmed by the immersive environment. Conclusions: The study highlights the nuanced role of LH in shaping learners’ responses to immersive educational technologies. While teacher-made 360° VR tours have the potential to enhance engagement and learning, their benefits are not equally distributed among all learners. In low-SES contexts, where LH may be more prevalent due to environmental and systemic constraints, simply introducing advanced technologies is not sufficient for ensuring equitable learning outcomes. Effective integration of VR tools requires pedagogical scaffolding, emotional support, and targeted interventions to address LH-related barriers. These findings underscore the need for context-sensitive technology integration frameworks that consider both technological affordances and learners' psychological differences.
