Teacher-made 360-degree VR Tours for Foreign Language Learning: Insights into Learned Helplessness in a Low Socioeconomic Status Context

Eftekhari, M.; Rahimi, M.

doi:10.22061/tej.2026.12814.3342

Articles in Press

Document Type : Original Research Paper-English Issue

Authors

M. Eftekhari ¹
M. Rahimi ²

¹ English Department, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran

² English Department, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University

https://doi.org/10.22061/tej.2026.12814.3342

Abstract

Background and Objectives: Educational technology has long been recognized as a powerful tool for enhancing foreign language learning opportunities, with particular relevance for students in under-resourced environments where instructional quality and materials are often limited. Among emerging tools, virtual reality (VR) videos have gained increasing attention for their capacity to create immersive, authentic learning experiences in recent years. Despite the promise of these emerging technologies, little is known about how their pedagogical effectiveness varies among learners with different psychological profiles. One such psychological factor-learned helplessness (LH)- plays a critical role in students’ academic behaviours, motivation, and resilience. Learners with high LH often experience persistent negative expectations about their abilities, reduced perseverance, and diminished engagement, potentially limiting the benefits they receive from technology-enhanced learning environments. Although previous research has explored LH in EFL settings and the equity implications of educational technology, no study to date has examined how teacher-made 360° VR videos influence language learning outcomes across LH levels in a low socioeconomic status (SES). Therefore, the present study was designed to fill this gap by examining the effects of teacher-made 360° VR tours on English achievement among students with different levels of LH in an underprivileged setting.
Materials and Methods: The study employed a mixed-methods experimental design. Fifty-eight female 10th-grade students (aged 15-16) from an underprivileged school were randomly assigned to an experimental (n=29) and a control group (n=29). The experimental group used tailored 360° VR tours, made by a Samsung Gear 360 camera, and the control group used ready-made 360 VR videos from YouTube for one academic year. The learning gains were assessed by the English final exam, and the level of LH was evaluated by the EFL-LH scale. Quantitative data were analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to compare post-test performance between research groups and participants with different levels of LH. To explore learner perceptions, an open-ended questionnaire was used with a purposive subsample representing both high- and low-LH groups. Qualitative data were analyzed thematically to identify patterns in learners’ perceptions of the VR learning experience.
Conclusions: The study highlights the nuanced role of LH in shaping learners’ responses to immersive educational technologies. While teacher-made 360° VR tours have the potential to enhance engagement and learning, their benefits are not equally distributed among all learners. In low-SES contexts, where LH may be more prevalent due to environmental and systemic constraints, simply introducing advanced technologies is not sufficient for ensuring equitable learning outcomes. Effective integration of VR tools requires pedagogical scaffolding, emotional support, and targeted interventions to address LH-related barriers. These findings underscore the need for context-sensitive technology integration frameworks that consider both technological affordances and learners' psychological differences

Keywords

Main Subjects

Emerging educational technologies

COPYRIGHTS
© 2026 The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)

References

[1] Warschauer M, Xu Y. Technology and equity in education. In: Voogt J, Knezek G, Christensen R, Lai KW (Eds). Second Handbook of Information Technology in primary and secondary education. Springer; 2018. pp. 1063-79.

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71054-9_76

[2] Cappola R. Using technology with low-income students: How schools can help students’ success? [master’s thesis]. Bethel University; 2020.

[3] Seligman MEP. Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. Henry Holt & Co; 1975.

[4] Camacho EM, Verstappen MM, Symmons PM. Association between socioeconomic status, learned helplessness, and disease outcome in inflammatory polyarthritis. Arthritis Care Res. 2012;64(8):1225-33. doi:10.1002/acr.21677

[5] Di Pietro G, Muñoz JC. A meta-analysis on the effect of technology on the achievement of less advantaged students. Comput Educ. 2025;226:105197.

doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105197

[6] Mubarak F, Suomi R, Kantola S-P. Confirming the links between socio-economic variables and digitalization worldwide: the unsettled debate on digital divide. J Inf Commun Ethics Soc. 2020;18(3):415-30. doi:10.1108/JICES-02-2019-0021

[7] Kim HJ, Yi P, Hong JI. Are schools digitally inclusive for all? Profiles of school digital inclusion using PISA 2018. Comput Educ. 2021;170:104226. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104226

[8] Wang P. Examining the digital divide between rural and urban schools: Technology availability, teachers’ integration level, and students’ perception. J Curriculum Teach. 2013;2(2):127-39. doi:10.5430/jct.v2n2p127

[9] Bowman MA, Vongkulluksn VW, Jiang Z, Xie K. Teachers’ exposure to professional development and the quality of their instructional technology use: the mediating role of teachers’ value and ability beliefs. J Res Technol Educ. 2020;1-17. doi:10.1080/15391523.2020.1830895

[10] Timotheou S, Miliou O, Dimitriadis Y, Sobrino SV, Giannoutsou N, Cachia R, et al. Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools’ digital capacity and transformation: A literature review. Educ Inf Technol. 2023;28(6):6695-726. doi:10.1007/s10639-022-11431-8

[11] Balanskat A, Blamire R, Kefala S. The ICT impact report. European Schoolnet; 2006.

[12] Rastegar N, Rahimi M. Teachers' post-pandemic outlook on the role of Technological and Pedagogical Content Knowledge in coping with burnout under adverse conditions: How a job demand transformed into a job resource. Front Psychol. 2023;14:1129910. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1129910

[13] Rogers M, Scott KL. The Diffusion of Innovations Model and outreach from the National Network of Libraries of Medicine to Native American communities. 1997.

[14] Ređep NB. Comparative overview of the digital preparedness of education systems in selected CEE countries. Center for Policy Studies, CEU Democracy Institute; 2021.

[15] Condie R, Munro RK. The impact of ICT in schools: a landscape review; 2007.

[16] Rahimi M, Alavi J. The role of teaching experience in language teachers’ perceptions of a top-down curriculum change. Curric J. 2017; 28(4) :479-503.

doi:10.1080/09585176.2017.1344134

[17] Sun JC, Yu C, Metros SE. The Digital Divide and its impact on academic performance. US-China Educ Rev. 2011;A2:153-61.

[18] Knezek G, Christensen R, Hancock R, Shoho A. Toward a structural model of technology integration. Paper presented at: Hawaii Educational Research Association Annual Conference; 2000; Honolulu, HI.

[19] Kim C, Keller J. Towards technology integration: The impact of motivational and volitional email messages. Educ Technol Res Dev. 2011;59(1):91-111. doi:10.1007/s11423-010-9174-1

[20] Mishra P, Koehler MJ. Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers Coll Rec. 2006;108(6):1017-54.

doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x

[21] Sweeney DM. Students’ experiences of educational technology use to facilitate university learning: factors influencing their mediation of learning. Res Learn Technol. 2024;32:1-16. doi:10.25304/rlt.v32.3193

[22] Valverde-Berrocoso J, Acevedo-Borrega J, Cerezo-Pizarro M. Educational Technology and student performance: a systematic review. Front Educ. 2022; 7: 916502.

doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.916502

[23] Maier SF, Seligman MEP. Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. J Exp Psychol Gen. 1976; 105:3-46.

doi:10.1037/0096-3445.105.1.3

[24] Khan A. Psychological influences on problem-solving following lab-induced learned helplessness. [master’s thesis]. Western Michigan University; 2023.

[25] Eftekhari M. Effects of adapted 360-degree videos on EFL learners’ grammar achievement, reading comprehension, and learned helplessness. [master’s thesis]. Shahid Rajaee University; 2024.

[26] He H. Students’ learned helplessness and teachers’ care in EFL classrooms. Front Psychol. 2021; 12: 806587. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.806587

[27] Seifert TL. Understanding student motivation. Educ Res. 2004;46(2):137-49. doi: 10.1080/0013188042000222421

[28] Akca F. The relationship between test anxiety and learned helplessness. Soc Behav Person. 2011. 39(1): 101–111. doi:10.2224/sbp.2011.39.1.101

[29] Fer S, Akpur U. Learned helplessness, foreign language anxiety and their impacts on language learning. MSGSÜ Sosyal Bilimler. 2021;1(23):283-95.

[30] Schleider JL, Vélez CE, Krause EL, Gillham JE. Perceived psychological control and anxiety in early adolescents: The mediating role of attributional style. Cogn Ther Res. 2014;38:71-81. doi:10.1007/s10608-013-9573-9

[31] Daggol GD. An examination of Turkish college-level students’ learned helplessness states in EFL context. J Higher Educ Sci. 2018;8(1):145-61. doi:10.5961/jhes.2018.257

[32] Horwitz EK, Horwitz MB, Cope J. Foreign language classroom anxiety. Mod Lang J. 1986;70:125-32.

doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.x

[33] Weiner B. An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psych Rev. 1985;92(4): 548-573. doi;10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548

[34] Abramson LY, Seligman MEP, Teasdale JD. Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. J Abnorm Psychol. 1978;87:49-74. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49

[35] Hsu L. A qualitative analysis on the occurrence of learned helplessness among EFL students. J Educ Dev Psychol. 2011;1(1):162-75. doi:10.5539/jedp.v1n1p162

[36] Aydogan H. The relations of learned helplessness, locus of control, and attitudes toward English with academic success. Inonu Univ J Educ. 2016; 17:177-83.

doi:10.17679/inuefd.17391488

[37] Krejtz I, Nezlek JB. It’s Greek to me: Domain specific relationships between intellectual helplessness and academic performance. J Soc Psychol. 2016;156:664-73.

doi:10.1080/00224545.2016.1152219

[38] Sucu HÖ, Bulut M. Investigating University Preparatory Students’ Level of Learned Helplessness in Learning English in Terms of Different Variables. In: Erçetin, Ş., Potas, N. (Eds), Chaos, Complexity & Leadership (Eds) 2017. Springer; 2019. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89875-9_49

[39] Kolber M. Learned Helplessness during a high school English lesson. Forum Oświatowe. 2020;32:87-97.

doi:10.34862/fo.2020.2.4

[40] Moghari HE, Lavasani M, Bagherian V, Afshari J. Relationship between perceived teacher's academic optimism and English achievement: Role of self-efficacy. Procedia - Soc Behav Sci. 2011. 15: 2329-2333.

doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.102

[41] Ghasemi F. A motivational response to the inefficiency of teachers’ practices towards students with learned helplessness. Learn Motiv. 2021;73:101705. doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2020.101705

[42] Ghasemi F. L2 motivational self-system in practice: Alleviating students’ learned helplessness through a vision-based program. School Ment Health. 2022;14:179-88. doi:10.1007/s12310-021-09464-4

[43] Ahmadi A, Jahangard E. Ranking of the neighborhoods of Tehran metropolis in terms of development and quality of life: A fuzzy TOPSIS approach. Urban Econ. 2020; 5(1): 127-148. https://doi.org/10.22108/ue.2021.124422.1151

[44] Farhady H, Jafarpur A, Birjandi P. Testing language skills: From theory to practice. SAMT Publications; 1994.

[45] Alavi Moghaddam B, Kheirabadi R, Rahimi M, Davari H. Vision 1, English for schools (English for K-10)-student book. Ministry of Education of Iran, Organization for Educational Research and Planning; 2018.

[46] Sabeghi Z, Rahimi M. Integrating STEAM activities into teaching reading: Examination of comprehension and cognitive load. Anadolu J Educ Sci Int. 2024;14:218-39.

doi:10.18039/ajesi.1278816

[47] Grabe W, Stoller FL. Teaching and researching reading. Routledge; 2011.

[48] Pallant J. SPSS survival manual: A step-by-step guide to data analysis using the SPSS program (4th ed). McGraw Hill; 2010.

[49] Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed). Hillsdale; 1998.

[50] Dolgunsöz E, Yıldırım G, Yildirim S. The effect of virtual reality on EFL writing performance. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies. 2018; 14(1): 278-292.

[51] Chen CJ, Liu PL. Combining immersive virtual reality with CLIL and TPR to enhance English as foreign language learners’ language acquisition. Educ Tech Soc. 2025; 28:78-108. doi:10.30191/ETS.202501_28(1). SP05

[52] Mayer R. Multimedia enhanced learning. Cambridge University Press; 2001.

[53] Chen MR, Hwang GJ. Effects of experiencing authentic contexts on English speaking performances, anxiety and motivation of EFL students with different cognitive styles. Interact Learn Environ. 2020;30:1619-39.

doi:10.1080/10494820.2020.1734626

[54] Shadiev R, Chen X, Sintawati W, Altinay F, Li Y, Kerimbayev N, Tlili A. Facilitating cross-cultural competence of students in an interactive VR learning environment. Educ Tech Soc. 2025;28:78-108. doi:10.30191/ETS.202501_28(1).RP05

[55] Tai TY. Impact of mobile virtual reality on EFL learners’ listening comprehension. Lang Learn Tech. 2022;26:1-23.